A - Comparison with -er/-est

clean - cleaner - (the) cleanest

We use -er/-est with the following adjectives:

1) Adjectives with one syllable

positive	comparative	superlative
clean	cleaner	cleanest
new	newer	newest
cheap	cheaper	cheapest

2) Adjectives with two syllables and the following endings:

2 - 1) Adjectives with two syllables, ending in -y

positive	comparative	superlative
dirty	dirtier	dirtiest
easy	easier	easiest
happy	happier	happiest
pretty	prettier	prettiest

2 - 2) Adjectives with two syllables, ending in -er

positive	comparative	superlative
clever	cleverer	cleverest

2 - 3) Adjectives with two syllables, ending in -le

positive	comparative	superlative
simple	simpler	simplest

2 - 4) Adjectives with two syllables, ending in -ow

positive	comparative	superlative
narrow	narrower	narrowest

3) Spelling of the adjectives using the endings -er/-est

positive	comparative	superlative	comment
large	larger	largest	leave out the silent -e
big	bigger	biggest	Double the consonant after short vowel
sad	sadder	saddest
dirty	dirtier	dirtiest	Change -y to -i (consonant before -y)
shy	shyer	shyest	Here -y is not changed to -i. (although consonant before -y)

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B - Comparison with more - most

positive	comparative	superlative
difficult	more difficult	(the) most difficult

all adjectives with more than one syllable (except some adjectives with two syllables - see
2 - 1 to 2 - 4)

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C - Irregular adjectives

positive	comparative	superlative	comment
good	better	best
bad	worse	worst
much	more	most	uncountable nouns
many	more	most	countable nouns
little	less	least
little	smaller	smallest

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D - Special adjectives

Some adjectives have two possible forms of comparison (-er/est and more/most).

positive	comparative	superlative
clever	cleverer / more clever	cleverest / most clever
common	commoner / more common	commonest / most common
likely	likelier / more likely	likeliest / most likely
pleasant	pleasanter / more pleasant	pleasantest / most pleasant
polite	politer / more polite	politest / most polite
quiet	quieter / more quiet	quietest / most quiet
simple	simpler / more simple	simplest / most simple
stupid	stupider / more stupid	stupidest / most stupid
subtle	subtler / more subtle	subtlest / most subtle
sure	surer / more sure	surest / most sure

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E - Difference in meaning with adjectives:

positive	comparative	superlative	comment
far	farther	farthest	distance
	further	furthest	distance or time
late	later	latest
	latter	x
	x	last
old	older	oldest	people and things
	elder	eldest	people (family)
near	nearer	nearest	distance
	x	next	order

GRAMMAR

-ING FORM

We can use the -ing form of the verb:

• as a noun:

I love swimming.
Swimming is very good for your health.
You can get fit by swimming regularly.

-ing nouns are nearly always uncount nouns

• as an adjective:

The main problem today is rising prices.
That programme was really boring.
He saw a woman lying on the floor.

Because the -ing noun or adjective is formed from a verb it can have any of the patterns which follow a verb, for example:

• ... an object:

I like playing tennis.
I saw a dog chasing a cat.

• ... or an adverbial:

You can earn a lot of money by working hard.
There were several people waiting for the bus.

• ... or a clause:

I heard someone saying that.

The -ing noun can be used:

• as the subject of a verb:

Learning English is not easy.

• as the object of a verb:

We enjoy learning English.

Common verbs followed by an -ing object are:

admit	like	hate	start	avoid
suggest	enjoy	dislike	begin	finish

• as the object of a preposition

Some people are not interested in learning English.

The -ing adjective can come:

• in front of a noun:

I read an interesting article in the newspaper today.
We saw a really exciting match on Sunday.

 The commonest –ing adjectives used in front of the noun are

amusing	interesting	worrying	shocking	disappointing
boring	surprising	exciting	terrifying	frightening
tiring	annoying

• after a noun:

Who is that man standing over there?
The boy talking to Angela is her younger brother.

• and especially after verbs like see, watch, hear, smell etc.

I heard someone playing the piano.
I can smell something burning.

GRAMMAR-TO INFINITIVE

We use the to-infinitive:

• to express purpose (to answer "Why...?"):

He bought some flowers to give to his wife.
He locked the door to keep everyone out.

We sometimes say in order to or in order not to:

We set off early in order to avoid the traffic.
They spoke quietly in order not to wake the children

… or we can say so as to or so as not to:

We set off early so as to avoid the traffic.
They spoke quietly so as not to wake the children.

• after certain verbs (see verbs followed by infinitive), particularly verbs of thinking and feeling:

choose, decide, expect, forget, hate, hope, intend, learn, like,
love, mean, plan, prefer, remember, want, would like, would love

… and verbs of saying:

agree, promise, refuse

They decided to start a business together.
Remember to turn the lights out.

Some verbs are followed by a direct object and the infinitive(see verbs followed by infinitive):

advise, ask, encourage, invite, order, persuade, remind, tell, warn,
expect, intend, would prefer, want, would like

She reminded me to turn the lights out.
He encouraged his friends to vote for him.

• after certain adjectives.

Sometimes the to-infinitive gives a reason for the adjective:

• disappointed
• glad
• sad
• happy
• anxious
• pleased
• surprised
• proud
• unhappy

We were happy to come to the end of our journey
= We were happy because we had come to the end of our journey
John was surprised to see me
= He was surprised because he saw me

Other adjectives with the to-infinitive are:

• able
• unable
• due
• eager
• keen
• likely
• unlikely
• ready
• prepared
• unwilling
• willing

Unfortunately I was unable to work for over a week.
I am really tired. I’m ready to go to bed.

We often use the to-infinitive with these adjectives after it to give opinions:

• difficult
• easy
• possible
• impossible
• hard
• right
• wrong
• kind
• nice
• clever
• silly
• foolish

It’s easy to play the piano, but it’s very difficult to play well.
He spoke so quickly it was impossible to understand him.

We use the preposition for to show who these adjectives refer to:

• difficult
• easy
• possible
• impossible
• hard

It was difficult for us to hear what she was saying.
It is easy for you to criticise other people.

We use the preposition of with other adjectives:

It’s kind of you to help.
It would be silly of him to spend all his money.

• As a postmodifier (see noun phrases) after abstract nouns like:

• ability
• desire
• need
• wish
• attempt
• failure
• opportunity
• chance
• intention

I have no desire to be rich.
They gave him an opportunity to escape.
She was annoyed by her failure to answer the question correctly.

• We often use a to-infinitive as a postmodifier after an indefinite pronoun (See indefinite pronouns):

When I am travelling I always take something to read.
I was all alone. I had no one to talk to.
There is hardly anything to do in most of these small towns.

Word record

A world record is usually the best global performance ever recorded and officially verified in a specific skill or sport. The book Guinness World Records collates and publishes notable records of all types, from first and best to worst human achievements, to extremes in the natural world and beyond. The website RecordSetter has begun to take on the same territory, but with a more inclusive policy.

Largest ball of sisal twine built by a single person

Darwin, Minnesota, is the home of a ball of baler twine rolled by Francis A. Johnson. It is 12 feet (3.7 m) in diameter and weighs 17,400 pounds (7,900 kg). Johnson began rolling the twine in March 1950, and wrapped four hours every day for 29 years. It is currently housed in a specially made gazebo across from the town park on Main Street (45.096332°N 94.410276°W), and the town celebrates "Twine Ball Day" on the second Saturday in August every year. An adjacent volunteer-run, free to visit museum and gift shop has information on the history of the ball, as well as selling a variety of souvenirs

Like/as

Gramática

Cuando se utilizan como preposiciones van seguidas de un sustantivo o de un pronombre.
"Like" se traduce por "como / igual que / similar a / parecido a" con el sentido de similitud. Se trata de una comparación:

He behaved like a kid (no es que fuera un niño, pero lo parecía)
Your car is fast like a rocket
He looks like his father

"As" se traduce también por "como" con el sentido de "en calidad de". Se trata de una identidad.

Use this rope as a belt (la cuerda no se parece a un cinturón, pero se utiliza haciendo la función de cinturón)
The army used this building as its headquarters

En el siguiente ejemplo se puede ver la diferencia entre "like" y "as":

My house is always full of people, it is like a hotel (es parecido a un hotel)
The building where I live was used before as a hotel (funcionó en calidad de hotel)

También se utiliza la preposición "as" con profesiones:

My brother works as a lawyer

"As" se puede utilizar también como conjunción en cuyo caso va seguido por una oración (sujeto + verbo). Se traduce por "como".

The terrorist acted as we expected
Do your homework as your teacher has told you

Simple Past	Present Perfect Simple
irregular verbs: see 2nd column of irregular verbs Example: I spoke	irregular verbs: form of 'have' + 3rd column of irregular verbs Example: I / you / we / they have spoken he / she / it has spoken
regular verbs: infinitive + ed Example: I worked	regular verbs: form of 'have' + infinitive + ed Example: I / you / we / they have worked he / she / it has worked
Exceptions
Exceptions when adding 'ed': when the final letter is e, only add d Example: love - loved after a short, stressed vowel, the final consonant is doubled Example: admit - admitted final l is always doubled in British English (not in American English) Example: travel - travelled after a consonant, final y becomes i (but: not after a vowel) Example: worry - worried but: play - played

See also explanations on Simple Past and Present Perfect Simple

Use

In British English, the use of Simple Past and Present Perfect is quite strict. As soon as a time expression in the past is given, you have to use Simple Past. If there are no signal words, you must decide if we just talk about an action in the past or if its consequence in the present is important.

Note that the following explanations and exercises refer to British English only. In American English, you can normally use Simple Past instead of Present Perfect. We cannot accept this in our exercises, however, as this would lead to confusions amongst those who have to learn the differences.

Certain time in the past or just / already / yet?

Do you want to express that an action happened at a certain time in the past (even if it was just a few seconds ago) or that an action has just / already /not yet happened?

Simple Past	Present Perfect Simple
certain time in the past Example: I phoned Mary 2 minutes ago.	just / already / not yet Example: I have just phoned Mary.

Certain event in the past or how often so far?

Do you want to express when a certain action took place or whether / how often an action has happened till now?

Simple Past	Present Perfect Simple
certain event in the past Example: He went to Canada last summer.	whether / how often till now Example: Have you ever been to Canada? / I have been to Canada twice.

Emphasis on action or result?

Do you just want to express what happened in the past? Or do you want to emphasise the result (a past action's consequence in the present)?

Simple Past	Present Perfect Simple
Emphasis on action Example: I bought a new bike. (just telling what I did in the past.)	Emphasis on result Example: I have bought a new bike. (With this sentence I actually want to express that I have a new bike now.)

Signal Words

Simple Past	Present Perfect Simple
yesterday ... ago in 1990 the other day last ...	just already up to now until now / till now ever (not) yet so far lately / recently

BULLYING

School bullying is a type of bullying that occurs in an educational setting. Bullying can be physical, sexual, verbal, or emotional in nature.

School bullying may be more specifically defined as an unwelcome behavior among school aged children that involves a real or perceived power imbalance. In order to be considered bullying, the behavior must be repeated (or potentially repeated) and aggressive, and must include

• A difference in power: Kids who bully use their physical strength or popularity to control or harm others.
• Repetition: happening more than once or have the potential to happen more than once.

The long term effects of school bullying are numerous, and can include sensitivity, anxiety, and depression. Recent statistics suggest that the majority of students will experience bullying at some point in their academic careers. In the early 21st century, increasing attention has been given to the importance of teachers and parents understanding and recognizing the signs of bullying (among both bullies and victims), and being equipped with strategies and tools to address school bullying.